Visual Cortex Involvement in Memory

Visual Cortex Involvement in Memory Is visual cortex involved in memory? Essay type Option 1 [REVIEW OPTION] Là ³pez-Aranda et al. 2009. Role of Layer 6 of V2 Visual Cortex in Object-Recognition Memory, Science 325, 87 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19574389 Cattaneo et al., 2009. Contrasting early visual cortical activation states casually involved in visual imagery and short term memory http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19788574 Though a lot of information enters the brain, retention does not occur for all of it, and it is considered to be a selective process. One of these retentions is short term memory, also known as working memory. In vision, working memory is interpreted as the maintenance of a whole object, instead of the components of the objects image: orientation, texture, etc. (Super, 2003). Memory retention and formation is typically associated with increased activity in mammalian prefrontal and parietal cortex, with little evidence for activity in sensory areas, beyond of the initial sensory stimulation (Pasternak and Greenlee, 2005). The Multiple Memory Systems is a widely accepted view that sustains that the brain is divided into sections in respect of their own specific function. In this interpretation, the Medial Temporal Lobe (MTL) has a role in memory, particularly in explicit memory function, and includes structures such as the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, parahippocampal cortex, and perirhinal cortex, in addition to the prefrontal cortex (Bussey and Saksida, 2007). However, recent findings have suggested a role of sensory cortex in memory processing: increased brain activity in visual cortex has been found during the short-term retention of visual information after stimulus presentation (Kà ¡ldy and Sigala, 2004). It therefore has been more common to say that visual cortex role goes beyond encoding sensory information and also participates in memory consolidation. This essay reviews two papers in which evidence of the role of visual cortex in memory consolidation is presented by the use of different techniques: 1) Cellular techniques as protein overexpression and immunocytochemistry (Là ³pez-Aranda et al., 2009) and 2) Transcranial magnetic stimulation (Cattaneo et al., 2009) Role of Layer 6 of V2 Visual Cortex in Object-Recognition Memory Using rats as a model, Là ³pez-Aranda et al. (2009) tried to elucidate the specific role of layer 6 in V2, in regards to memory processing and retention. To do this, they utilised two methodologies in a paired-sample experiment (same group tested on two different occasions). One addressed the problem by analysing the overexpression of a certain G-protein regulator (RGS-14) in layer 6 of V2, that acted as a protease, and which permitted rats do better in Object recognition memory (ORM) tests. ORM tests consisted on evaluating the exploration time after an object was presented for 3 minutes, and presented again after a delay period of 30 minutes, 45 minutes or 60 minutes. Rats could recognise the object after 30 or 45 minutes had passed, but failed to do it after the 60 min delay. A group of these rats was then injected with a lentivirus coupled with the RGS-14 gene into layer 6 of V2, at 2/3 of V2 (dorsal to layer 6 of V2), at CA1 and at the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus (both ven tral to layer 6 of V2). This permitted the overexpression of RGS-14 at those sites. Rats were ORM tested again 3 weeks after the injection was done. What was found was that rats improved in their ORM tests when they were injected exactly at layer 6 of V2, whereas the rest of the rat groups (injected at other sites), did not show any difference in performance, and their activity was similar to that of the initial non-injected rats. The layer 6 injected rats were ORM tested again, to see how much retention they could support, showing up to 6 object retention (in comparison to the 2 object retention non-injected rats showed), and increasing its retention time to about 24 weeks. They then proceeded to make immunocytochemistry analysis to localize protein expression, which showed that RGS-14 was primarily being expressed at layer 6 of V2. The other methodology used focused on presenting the result of layer 6 of V2 destruction, by the injection of Ox7-SAP into this layer in non-injected rats and RGS-14 injected rats, and later doing the ORM test to both groups. Non-injected rats showed an increased reduction in retention time, not being able to perform equally as they did when layer 6 of V2 was not ablated. RGS-14 lentivirus injected rats also showed a reduction in their ORM test performance. A group of rats, either injected or non-injected, were tested again, only that before having layer 6 of V2 ablated by Ox7-SAP an object was presented for three minutes. Rat performance was not reduced when ORM test was done with object that was previously presented, but did showed reduction when the ORM was done with a new object, presented after layer 6 removal. The results showed an involvement of layer 6 of V2 in memory trace, though not storage. It is not explicitly said if the RGS-14 G protein regulator is naturally expressed in layer 6 of V2. As far as the obtained results, it is possible to say that RGS-14 could act as treatment option for short memory disorders or impairments, though more trials are possibly needed. Contrasting early visual cortical activation states casually involved in visual imagery and short term memory With the use of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS), Cattaneo et al., (2009) evaluated the role of early visual areas in memory and visual imagery. They essentially established two similar experiments involving two tasks, the imagery task and the memory task, in subjects who were either undergoing occipital TMS (over V1/V2), Vertex TMS (as a control) or No TMS. In the imagery task of the first experiment, subjects had to create a mental image of something. It consisted on presenting a black dot in the middle of a white screen, followed by a series of digits (that represented an hour, e.g. 10.10, 6.50, etc.), for about 1000 ms. Then this digits disappeared and a black circle showed up. Subjects were then asked to imagine the clock hands in the position that would describe the digits they had just seen. After a 2 second period passed, a single pulse of TMS was applied, depending on the condition previously defined for them. Next, a black dot was shown (inside the black circle) and subjects were asked to tell if this dot had appeared inside or outside the area the clock hands were supposed to be, by either pressing 1 or 2 on a keyboard for either inside or outside the area. In the memory task in the same experiment, subjects also had to fix their eyes at a black dot in the white screen. Then, the clock hands (describing an hour) inside a circle appeared for about 1000 ms. When this period had passed, the hands disappeared but the circle remained, and subjects were asked to continue on thinking on the clock hands for about 2 s. TMS was applied at the end of this 2 s (retention) period, in the same mode as in the imagery task. A block then appeared inside the circle and subjects were asked to describe whether the dot was inside or outside the area the clock hands formed. By doing ANOVA, they found no relevant differences between the mean detection accuracies between TMS conditions: Occipital TMS, Vertex TMS and No TMS, in both imagery and memory tasks. However, the mean reaction times did show relevant differences between those conditions, in both tasks. A Post hoc comparison showed that performance was better in the Occipital TMS than when condition were Vertex TMS or no TMS. There was also no significant variation when the analysis was done between Vertex TMS and no TMS. Experiment two was fairly similar to the one described above. It also involved a memory and imagery task, with the only difference being when was TMS applied: at the beginning of the 2 s period after subjects had seen the digits and were asked to imagine the clock hands inside the circle, for the imagery task, and at the beginning of the 2 s period when they were asked to continue on thinking on the clock hands, for the memory task. By performing ANOVA they found no significant difference between conditions for the mean detection accuracies and reaction time, in the imagery task. Conversely, in the memory task, ANOVA showed a relevant effect in mean detection accuracy and mean time, as well as the Post hoc analysis showed occipital TMS had an effect in comparison to the other conditions, both of which was impairment in performance. Discussion MTL structures have been presented as the major components in perception and working memory, and it is seen as a domain where ORM is thought to be processed (Kà ¡ldy and Sigala, 2004). Là ³pez-Aranda et al, (2009) results of the role of layer 6 neurons in the formation of both normal (short-term) and long-term ORM highlight the importance of V2, an area placed outside of MTL. Not much is known about the protein overexpressed at V2, RGS-14. It is integrated by a Regulators of G protein Signaling domain, as well as by a motif that permit its binding to inactive GDP; and by a tandem Rap1/2–binding domain. Acting as a GTPase activating protein, the protein increases the rate of conversion of the GTP to GDP. This allows the G alpha subunits to bind subunit heterodimers, and eventually ending a signal (NCBI, 2013). It would be interesting to know what made the authors determine to test this protein in that specific layer of V2, as it is not fully stated in the article, and because RGS14 was found to be expressed naturally/primarily in CA2 hippocampal neurons and to show memory â€Å"obstruction† when expressed in mice (Lee et al., 2010). Perhaps difference s between species (as both studies were done with model animals: rats and mice) are more relevant than thought, and should be taken in account before making any definite conclusion or investigate of how the signaling process occurs and affects a cognitive behavior, such as memory. However, findings involving TMS analysis in humans by decrease of activity, as the one presented by Cattaneo et al. (2009), in which there was a noted decrease in subject performance in the memory task when TMS was applied in the beginning of the â€Å"retention period† at V1/V2, indicate that memory of visual information involves activity in early visual cortex that goes further than the periods of sensory perception. In early visual cortex, memory of visual content is topographically organized. These results are possibly due to less vulnerability to interference after the retention period, and a possible interaction with higher order areas activity with visual cortex activity (van de Ven and Sack, 2013). The previous results can be paired with Harrison and Tong (2009) results, were they used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), in conjunction to Blood Oxygen Level Dependent (BOLD) analysis, to monitor cortical activity while participants did a delayed orientation discrimination task, where 2 gratings were shown to the subjects, followed by a cue that indicated which grating to remember (first or second) and an 11 s period (delay period). Then the grating was showed again and subjects had to say if the image was rotated in a sense or antisense (clockwise) matter. They examined the role of visual areas in working memory through different experiments; fMRI decoding was specifically used to evaluate the patterns in brain activity, in areas corresponding to V1 to V4 (to the 120 most responsive voxels) to try to predict its representation in working memory. The accuracy of predicted orientation that was held in memory reached 83%, which is considered to be very high, one of the ex periments where subjects had to fix its eye to a letter, and not the grating, showed high prediction to those gratings in areas V1, V2 and V3. Ultimately, their findings suggest that memory related information may be encoded in these structures (showing increased activity in areas V1/V2) and that early visual areas can hold up information, not only displaying sensory processing functions. Different approaches can be taken to evaluate visual cortex relation with memory, as the ones reviewed in this essay: TMS, protein overexpression, fMRI among others. Evidence that sensory cortical areas are an active element of the circuitry that underlies short term retention of sensory signals is emerging and improving our understanding of memory. It can be concluded that not only the MTL is important for visual memory processing, but also early visual cortex and evidence of what is happening at the cellular level needs to be improved in order to eventually delimit its potential in cognitive treatments. References Bussey TJ, Saksida LM (2007) Memory, perception, and the ventral visual-perirhinal-hippocampal stream: thinking outside of the boxes. Hippocampus 17:898-908. Cattaneo Z, Vecchi T, Pascual-Leone A, Silvanto J (2009) Contrasting early visual cortical activation states causally involved in visual imagery and short-term memory. The European journal of neuroscience 30:1393-1400. Harrison SA, Tong F (2009) Decoding reveals the contents of visual working memory in early visual areas. Nature 458:632-635. Kaldy Z, Sigala N (2004) The neural mechanisms of object working memory: what is where in the infant brain? Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews 28:113-121. Lee SE, Simons SB, Heldt SA, Zhao M, Schroeder JP, Vellano CP, Cowan DP, Ramineni S, Yates CK, Feng Y, Smith Y, Sweatt JD, Weinshenker D, Ressler KJ, Dudek SM, Hepler JR (2010) RGS14 is a natural suppressor of both synaptic plasticity in CA2 neurons and hippocampal-based learning and memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107:16994-16998. Lopez-Aranda MF, Lopez-Tellez JF, Navarro-Lobato I, Masmudi-Martin M, Gutierrez A, Khan ZU (2009) Role of layer 6 of V2 visual cortex in object-recognition memory. Science 325:87-89. NCBI (2013) RGS14 regulator of G-protein signaling 14 [ Homo sapiens (human) ]. In. USA. Pasternak T, Greenlee MW (2005) Working memory in primate sensory systems. Nature reviews Neuroscience 6:97-107. Super H (2003) Working memory in the primary visual cortex. Archives of neurology 60:809-812. van de Ven V, Sack AT (2013) Transcranial magnetic stimulation of visual cortex in memory: cortical state, interference and reactivation of visual content in memory. Behavioural brain research 236:67-77.

Ethical Use of Assessment Essay

Abstract In this report Julia has selected an assessment instrument that will be used in the mental health counseling field area of professional practice, the Beck Depression Inventory-II. Reviews of the assessment will be read to ensure that the assessment measures what it purports to measure and that the article reviews will also establish an appropriate use of that tool. Julia has also analyzed the theoretical basis of the article choice for the chosen assessment tool. In addition, Julia will compare who the test developers or publishers and independent reviewers to discuss the applicability of the assessment tool to diverse populations. Julia will provide information cited by the publisher where applicable. Along with this information, Julia will discuss how the comparison of the BDI-II to other assessments can help the counselor make an ethical judgment of the applicability of using the tool within diverse groups of clients. Finally, Julia will cite any relevant sections of the code of e thics for mental health counseling within the American Counseling Association as well as the Mental Health Professional code of ethics. It is also important to state that the names of participants used are fictional due to privacy of certain individuals. Ethical Use of Assessment Psychological Testing Ethics Ethics are an essential part of administering psychological tests and it is necessary that all test users follow the ethical guidelines for assessment when using any type of psychological test. Psychological tests are an important tool in terms of many professions in an array of settings such as in clinical psychology, education, and even business. However, misuse of psychological test by the administrators is a constant and troubling issue that has the potential to harm the individuals who are taking the test and even society as a whole. For test takers, the misuse of a psychological test could result in improper diagnoses or inappropriate decision making for their therapeutic process. The misuse of tests reflects very poorly on the  professional organizations along with highly trained test users. Overall this will result in poor decisions that may harm society in both an economic and mental fashion (Beck, Steer, & Garbin, 1988). Usually test administrators do not intentionally misuse tests, but rather are not properly trained within the technical knowledge and overall testing procedure involved in administering the test. In an effort to prevent the misuse of psychological tests, psychologists developed a set of professional and technical standards for the development, evaluation, administration, scoring, and interpretation of all psychological tests. Professionals can overcome the misuse of tests simply by understanding these professional and technical standards involved in using psychological tests (Beck, Steer, & Garbin, 1988). Beck developed a manual to help the administrator of the BDI to interpret the results of the inventory, which includes fifty reviews within a thirty page manual (Conoley, 2012) In any situation in which a professional offers advice or intervenes in a person’s personal life in any way, issues regarding fairness, honesty, and conflict of interest can exist. The term ethics dire ctly indicates any issues or practices that have the potential to influence the decision making process that involves doing the right thing. Therefore, ethics refers to the moral aspect of right or wrong in regards to various things such as an entire society, an organization, or a culture. Among many professions, there is a set of practice guidelines which are known as ethical standards in which each member of those professions elect on such codes after debating and discussing their various concerns of these particular guidelines that would make the process of testing more effective and ethical (Beck, Steer, & Garbin, 1988). However, it is exceptionally difficult to achieve universal agreement when it comes to ethics. For example, numerous psychologists disagree with each other in terms of the proper way to interpret a client’s right to privacy. Issues such as whether knowing a client may be a danger to themselves and others should be protected from legal inquiry poses what is known as an ethical dilemma. Ethical dilemmas are problems that will arise in which there is no clear, direct, or agreed upon moral solution. While ethical standards are not government appointed laws, violating ethical standards of an organization or profession can have numerous and varied penalties as well which can include expulsion from the organization. Testing is an essential  part of the psychological network, and if used improperly, can cause harm to individuals without their knowledge. Therefore, it is necessary that an ethical use of psychological tests is provided to anyone who relies upon them (Beck, Steer, & Garbin, 1988). Psychological Testing and Privacy Ethical standards indisputably cover a large amount of ethical concerns and issues with a common purpose involving protecting the rights of any individual that becomes a recipient of any psychological service including testing. The Ethical Principles have a goal to respect individuals, safeguard individual privacy as well as dignity, and censure any unfair or discriminatory practices. There are many issues of concern when it comes to ethics, one such issue being the right to privacy (an enormous issue in the mental health counseling profession). The concepts of individual rights and privacy are a fundamental part of any society. The Ethical Principles affirm individual rights to privacy and confidentiality as well as self-determination, meaning that each client has the right to be able to discuss any presenting issue with their therapist and the discussion stay within the bounds of the office and to participate in the decision making of the therapeutic process. The term confidentiality indicates that individuals are guaranteed privacy in terms of all personal information that is disclosed and that no information will then be disclosed without the individual’s direct written permission. There are times however, that confidentiality is breached because counselors within a business setting, for example, will seek out psychological information about their employees. Another example of confidentiality being breached in a professional setting is when teachers may seek prior test scores for students, however, with the good intention of understanding issues of performance (Beck, Steer, & Garbin, 1988). Counselors will also disclose any information the client discusses with them if the client intends to harm himself/herself and or others and when any type of abuse is indicated during the session. Psychological Testing and Anonymity Another term involved with an individual’s right to privacy is known as anonymity. Anonymity refers to the practice of obtaining information through  the use of tests while concealing the identity of the participant involved. Anonymous testing is more commonly used in double-blind studies in which the researchers are completely unaware of the identity of the participants of the study. It is suggested that anonymous testing may provide more validity in terms of accurate and truthful information about participants because participants will be more likely to answer questions truthfully about themselves when their identity is not revealed (Beck, Steer, & Garbin, 1988). Psychological Testing and Informed Consent Another important issue is the right to informed consent which means that the client has the right to know exactly what is happening at all times during the testing and therapeutic process during therapy. Self-determination is a right to every individual which means that individuals are entitled to complete explanations as to why exactly they are being tested as well as how the results of the test will be utilized and what their results mean. These complete explanations are commonly known as informed consent and should be conveyed in such a way that is straight-forward and easy for examinees to understand which is most of the time done in a language in which the client understands what is being explained to them. In the case of minors or those with limited cognitive abilities, informed consent needs to be discussed with both the minor examinee themselves as well as their parent or guardian (Beck, Steer, & Garbin, 1988). However, informed consent should not be confused with parental permission. Counselors have a responsibility to ensure that the minor examinee as well as their parent or guardian understand all implications and requirements that will be involved in a psychological test before it is even administered. In addition to the issue of informed consent, participants are also entitled to be prompted with an explanation of the test results in a language structure that they understand. However, due to the fact that some test results may influence the participant’s self-esteem as well as behavior, it is crucial that a trained professional explain the results to the participant in a sensitive and understanding manner so that the participant responds to the items on the test with accuracy (Beck, Steer, & Garbin, 1988). Psychological Testing and Stigma Another issue that involves ethics in terms of psychological tests is the right of protection from stigma. In conjunction with the participant’s right to know and understand their results, researchers need to be careful not to use any labels which might be interpreted as a stigma when describing the results in terms of and to the participant. Counselors and researchers must refrain from using terms such as â€Å"insane,† â€Å"feebleminded,† or â€Å"addictive personality†. Therefore, the results that the client receives, along with the parent or guardian in cases involving minors, should be describe in a positive way so that the growth and development of the participant is not disrespected in any way (Beck, Steer, & Garbin, 1988). Beck Depression Inventory versus Beck Depression Inventory-II Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) was designed to evaluate the possibility and severity of depression along with suicidality issues. The BDI was developed by Aaron Beck and his associates back in 1961 as a structured interview. Even though Beck is known for using a cognitive therapy methodology, the BDI is not designed in that fashion. Beck used language that was conducive of a fifth grade level to develop twenty-one items from which the participant can choose a level of severity from four option with each particular item. Cautions that Conoley (2012) mentioned in the review are those of fakability and social desirability. The individual participant may not be entirely truthful when choosing the severity of his or her level for items on the inventory. He or she may score higher or lower depending on how the individual responds to the inventory. Julia has also found that sometimes a participant has suffered from depression for a length of time in which makes responding to the items difficult since this individual may feel as though what is normal for him or her may not be normal for another individual. For example, Elka may score lower but has been presenting with depression much longer than Norma who scored higher due to the adult onset of depression versus the early onset of depression. Even though the BDI has been used extensively for about twenty-five years prior to revision in 1987 and again in the 1990s. Many articles touted the use of the BDI causing psychologists and therapists to use the origin al version created by Aaron Beck. The most recent BDI revised the original version with the rewording of fifteen out of twenty-one of the items due to discriminatory wording. The most recent revision also took into account the changes that were made to the Diagnostic Manual for  Mental Illness which correlate with the criteria for depression on a much higher level. It is plausible to have a more recent version created due to the Diagnostic Manual revision this past year in 2013. All versions of the BDI are designed to evaluate the probability of depression and suicidal tendency for individuals aged thirteen and over for a timeframe of five to ten minutes of the participant choosing the criteria associated with each item. The most recent version of the BDI has also revised to avoid sex and gender discrimination. These factors make the BDI-II a much stronger assessment tool which the counselor uses to evaluate the client’s presenting symptoms of depression (Arbisi & Farmer, 2012). Psychological Testing and BDI-II All of the ethical issues discussed above come into play when the counselor tests for depression of a client including the severity and longevity of the presenting symptoms of depression. Mental health counselors use the BDI-II to evaluate the possibility and severity of depression with which the client presents, in which it does. Usually the client will make a statement concerning the longevity of their presenting symptoms of depression which gives the counselor an idea of how long the client has been feeling depressed. Both are helpful in not only appropriately diagnosing the severity of the depression but also knowing what steps to take in the way of a treatment plan. Beck Depression Inventory-II and Diversity BDI-II has been modified and or translated into several different languages to address diversity in several cultures, such as Mexican-American, Chinese, as well as the elderly and older women groups. The items are modified in a way so that each group understands what the item is addressing as well as the ethnicity of each diverse group. Depression presents itself differently across cultural groups. What displays as depression in a Caucasian is most likely not display in an identical way with another culture group, such as African-American, Hispanic, Latino, Norwegian, etc. (Joe, Woolley, Brown, Ghahramanlou-Holloway, & Beck, 2008). The BDI-II has also been modified to address differences between adolescents, adults, and elderly. The elderly population has a much different presenting issue with depression. BDI-II and Counselor Judgment The counselor must make a sound judgment in choosing the BDI-II for use in evaluating a client’s presenting issues concerning depression, which includes comparing the BDI-II to other depression inventory assessments such as the CAD (Clinical Assessment of Depression) or the PHQ-9 (Patient Health Questionnaire-9). While the BDI-II is comparable to the PHQ-9 in statistical analysis, the CAD seems to be more accurate in evaluating clinical depression. However, the CAD consists of fifty questions which take about ten minutes or more to complete. For this factor alone the client may not accurately respond to the items on the CAD due to the length even though studies show that it results in a more accurate evaluation of depression (Arbisi & Farmer, 2012; Faxlanger, 2009; Kung, Alarcon, Williams, Poppe, & Frye, 2012). Even though the cost of the BDI-II cost much more than the CAD, the CAD is a relatively new assessment that has not had the longevity that the BDI-II has. The PHQ-9 does not have a cost connected to the assessment, but it is not as well-known as the BDI-II. Once Julia has established herself as a mental health counselor, she will explore the three tests further to see the effectiveness of each test compared to the other so that she can make a judgment on which test is more accurate and effective in diagnosing her clients (Arbisi & Farmer, 2012; Faxlanger, 2009; Kung, Alarcon, Williams, Poppe, & Frye, 2012). Summary In conclusion, the BDI-II seems to be the most effective assessment tool in diagnosing clinical depression. The American Mental Health Counselors Association Code of Ethics (2000) reports that the counselor is responsible for ensuring that each client is assessed appropriately including using the most appropriate test for the client’s presenting issues for diagnosis. The Code of Ethics also cautions the counselor in privacy, interpretation of the results, and to be trained for the assessments in which he or she will use in practice. As before stated, Julia will explore all options for testing for diagnosing clients as well as continued training in testing and interpretation of the results of each test used in practice. References American Mental Health Counselors Association (2000). Code of ethics. Retrieved March 9, 2014 from www.amhca.org/assets/content/CodeofEthics1.pdf Arbisi, P. A., and Farmer, R. F. (2012). Beck depression inventory-ii. Mental Measurements Yearbook and Tests in Print. Accession Number: TIP07000275. Mental Measurements Review Number: 14122148. Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Garbin, M. G. (1988). Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory: Twenty-five years of evaluation. Clinical Psychology Review, 8, 77-100. Cappeliez, P. (1989). Social desirability response set and self-report depression inventories in the elderly. Clinical Gerontologist, 9(2), 45-52. Dahlstrom, W. G., Brooks, J. D., & Peterson, C. D. (1990). The Beck Depression Inventory: Item order and the impact of response sets. Journal of Personality Assessment, 55, 224-233. Gatewood-Colwell, G., Kaczmarek, M., & Ames, M. H. (1989). Reliability and validity of the Beck Depression Inventory for a White and Mexican-American gerontic population. Psychological Reports, 65, 1163-1166. Joe, S., Woolley, Ghahramanlou-Holloway, M., Brown, G. K., Beek, A. T. (2008). Psyc hometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory-II in low-income, African American suicide attempters. Journal of Personality Assessment Volume 90, Issue 5, 2008. Retrieved March 8, 2014 from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2729713/ Kung, S., Alarcon, R. D., Williams, M. D., Poppe, K. A., Moore, M. J., Frye, M. A. (2012). Comparing the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) depression measures in an integrated mood disorders practice. Journal of Affective Disorders, Volume 145, Issue 3, Pages 341-343, 5 March 2013. Retrieved March 9, 2014 from http://www.jad-journal.com/article/S0165-0327%2812%2900586-1/abstract Faxlanger, L. (2009). The clinical assessment of depression vs. the Beck depression inventory. Retrieved March 9, 2014 from http://lisamarie1019.blogspot.com/2009/09/clinical-assessment-of-depression-vs.html Steer, R. A., Beck, A. T., & Brown, G. (1989). Sex differences on the revised Beck Depression Inventory for outp atients with affective disorders. Journal of Personality Assessment, 53, 693-703. Steer, R. A., Beck, A. T., & Garrison, B. (1986). Applications of the Beck Depression Inventory. In N. Sartorius & T. A. Ban (Eds.), Assessment of depression (pp. 121-142). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. Talbott, N. M. (1989). Age

The Caribbean People

Saladoid culture is a pre-columbian indigenous culture of Venezuela and the Caribbean that flourished from 500 BCE to 545 CE. [1] This culture is thought to have originated at the lower Orinoco River near the modern settlements of Saladero and Barrancas in Venezuela. Seafaring people from the lowland region of the Orinoco River of South America migrated into and established settlements in the Lesser Antilles, Puerto Rico, and Hispaniola. [1] They displaced the pre-ceramic Ortoiroid culture. As a horticultural people, they initially occupied wetter and more fertile islands that best accommodated their needs.These Indigenous peoples of the Americas were an Arawak-speaking culture. Between 500-280 BCE, they immigrated into Puerto Rico and the Lesser Antilles, eventually making up a large portion of what was to become a single Caribbean culture. [edit]Culture Saladoid people are characterized by agriculture, ceramic production, and sedentary settlements. [1] Their unique and highly decor ated pottery has enabled archaeologists to recognize their sites and to determine their places of origin. Saladoid ceramics include zoomorphic effigy vessels, incense burners, platters, trays, jars, bowls with strap handles, and bell-shaped containers.The red pottery was painted with white, orange, and black slips. [1] Distinctive Saladoid artifacts are stone pendants, shaped like raptors from South America. These were made from a range of exotic materials, including such as carnelian, turquoise, lapis lazuli, amethyst, crystal quartz, jasper-chalcedony, and fossilized wood. These were traded through the Great and Lesser Antilles and the South American mainland, until 600 CE. [1] The Taino of the Greater Antilles represented the last stage of the Ostionoid cultural tradition.By about AD 1100-1200, the Ostionoid people of Hispaniola lived in a wider and more diverse geographic area than did their predecessors; their villages were larger and more formally arranged, farming was intensi fied, and a distinctive material culture developed. They developed rich and vibrant ritual and artistic traditions that are revealed in Taino craftsmanship in using bone, shell, stone wood and other media. Social stratification is thought to have become more pronounced and rigid during this period as well. This stage of intensification and elaboration after AD 1100 is known as â€Å"Taino†.The Taino people, as characterized by archaeologists, were not a unified society, and have been categorized into subdivisions according to the degree of elaboration in their artistic and social expression. The Central or â€Å"Classic† Tainos are identified with the most complex and intensive traditions, and are represented archaeologically by â€Å"Chican-Ostionoid† material culture. They occupied much of Hispaniola, including En Bas Saline. The â€Å"Western† Taino occupied central Cuba, Jamaica, and parts of Hispaniola, and , are also associated archaeologically with the â€Å"Ostionoid-Meillacan† material tradition.The Lucayan Taino lived in the Bahamas, and the â€Å"Eastern† Taino are thought to have lived in regions of the Virgin Islands and the Leeward Islands of the Lesser Antilles. As many archaeologists have emphasized, however, the Taino were but one of the recognizable cultural groups in the Caribbean at the time of contact. They co-existed and interacted with other Ostionan peoples and perhaps even Saladoid-influenced Archaic peoples, such as the Guanahatabey of Cuba and the Caribs of the Lesser Antilles.

Gender Roles, Sexism and Carrying out Standards Tactics used by Mass Media to Influence a Society - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1604 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2019/04/26 Category Sociology Essay Level High school Tags: Gender Roles Essay Did you like this example? Everywhere you go or look there is at least one advertisement you come across in a days time that uses a woman to promote advertisement or set the bar as to what is acceptable! In a days trip I took one day about an hour and half away from the town I lived in, I counted 3 posters and 1 billboard that showed a woman who had one of the following; airbrushed skin, a small Hollywood figure, designer and/or provocative clothing. That one bit of self-research is what interested me into if the media really does affect a womans or young girls thinking and acting of herself or others. In order for society to start experiencing less gender inequality, body dysmorphia and holding themselves or others to low standards is to put a halt to the way it portrays and talks about women. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Gender Roles, Sexism and Carrying out Standards: Tactics used by Mass Media to Influence a Society" essay for you Create order Media we see through tv, magazines, billboard advertisements, movies etc. often uses their platform as a way to influence how society defines gender roles leading to sexism and gender stratification. Not only does it affect womens lives (young or old) and even mens, but the images that Media exhibits of gender roles eventually make their way into a workplace or school that in turn pressures the attitudes and actions those in attendance (Lindsey 2013). In the documentary Miss Representation, it is explained that the media uses their version of what a gender role is and what a woman who is assumed to be appealing to others looks like to encourage consumers their product and/or set social norms for women and men throughout all different age groups and parts of the world; this then turns to men and even other women degrading others or themselves which in turn benefits only the creator. At times, it seems as if the Media does not intentionally encourage, but may make a side comment on the way a woman looks, talks or acts. Although media may deny or choose not to comment on using their platform as an advantage, it is setting the bar as to what one should expect out of a woman; brainwashing both men and women to uphold this expectation without seeing the consequences behind doors and giving women a sense of false sense of power when they have achieved the goal the media outputs. The Medias Version of a gender role Depictions of relationships between men and women emphasize long-established roles and insinuate that violent acts against a woman are normal or ignored (Wood, n.d.). Miss representation shows Sarah Palin running for president against Hilary Clinton and being used in the media as an example of what a woman should act, talk and dress like if she wanted to be accepted by society as the All-American woman, proving the Medias version of a Gender role. Like most media outputs, women are great at caring for others, very family oriented, always well put together, just as society perceived Sarah Palin, which is shown to be part of the reason some were in favor of her. If you look at any past election rally interviews people were in favor of her over Clinton due to side comments about her looks or the way she dressed. This isnt to say that this was the reasoning for everyone, but it stood out. Women in the media are shown to naturally have perfect measurements and much younger looking than wo men in the population as a whole and most are depicted as apathetic, dependent on men, an infatuated with a relationship or completing tasks in their homes (Davis,1990). The world would no longer have just a short list of these behaviors, attitudes and looks that are based on the biological sex or chosen gender if we looked a bit closer and realized women were, are and can be capable of many things including ones that only men are thought to do; some of which are well documented, just ignored and forgotten about. Gender Roles upheld Its unfortunate that gender roles are sometimes upheld by society as a whole due to not speaking out against the sexism and the continuance of the media influencing how many women are given the chance at a career or position that they are most often qualified to do, but turned away because of their gender. There are many instances that Media has the power to eliminate Gender roles all together, but dont do to lack of simply not having any diversity throughout a company. When it comes to television writers, producers and executives, only about 5% of them are women (Lichter, Litcher and Rothman, 1986). It isnt a coincidence that Media industries that are made up mostly of men portray women at such a low level, but if women were given higher positions and were able to hold the power to make decisions, there could be more positive images and statements released by major corporations. In 2018 only 110 women hold seats in the united states congress, but if you look at numbers for men, it s hows 425;23 women serve in the U.S. Senate and 87 women serve in the U.S. House of representatives (CAWP, n.d.). The increase of women in congress has grown just by 5 since 2015! Although an increase is good, there are still about 4-in-10 women that say they have experienced unfairness due to their gender (Horowitz, Parker, Stepler). Women are often portrayed as not being capable of caring the same roles as men; companies favor a man over a women when looking at potential candidates depending on the job. Acting in accordance to prevailing standards Media has always done some type of advertising of women; throughout the 1800s women were painted with what seemed to be impossible small waists, bulging breasts and fancy dresses. Back in the 1950s Marilyn Monroe was popular for her curves and continues to be an influence on young girls and women today. In todays era, there is still a thought that models are tall and very thin, but there has also been an up-rise of models shown embracing curves due to more people speaking out. More companies are starting to realize this; an example would be the popular American Eagle. They have released statements about body acceptance and even pictured models of different shapes and sizes. Girls learn at a very young age what the standards are for them to grow up looking and acting like. A study shows young females are preferring a smaller child to overweight ones (White, Mauro Spindler, 1985) as friends or for themselves to appear as; An absurd thing that should not be looked over. A modern-day Vi ctorias Secret fashion show airs each year and makes an emphasis on tall, thin women with beachy waves and continuous sex appeals due to their provocative advertising during and outside of the show. Such advertising leads women to act in accordance and raising the standards themselves instead of fighting against them. A study that was done in 1993 showed that amongst college and high school students 15.4% of them had some type of eating disorder; unfortunately, 4.2% of those women were shown to be anorexic (Nagel and Jones, 1993). Some physical appearances of models are obtained by strict diets, excessive exercising and/or eating disorders; They are then printed onto thousands of copies of magazines or billboards with quotes such as How to lose 30lbs in 30 days with a size 2 model in the background. What kind of example is that setting for young girls who see magazines line the front shelves in grocery stores? Boskind-White (1991) states that runway models that tend to inspire us ar e medically anorexic. Media use these types over and over again and the models continue to comply because of the constant pressure. It goes in a vicious cycle that leaves no benefit or positive examples to women in the same situation or for others on the outside seeing only the images Media shows. Conclusion Media can very much change the way a gender role is taken by incorporating a more variety of women and focusing on the positive aspects and abilities that one can contribute to society in careers, politics. Leadership etc.; in reality, they can be stopped by taking a stance and objecting the fantasy standards. In Miss Representation, several women come together to voice their experiences and opinions. There are big name actresses such as Geena Davis, Margaret Cho, Rosario Dawson and Jane Fonda that have all been turned away at some point or scrutinized for their looks, weight and attitude even though you do not see this trend with actors as often. Catherine Hardwicke of who directed one of the most popular films Twilight, was replaced with men directors in future films. All of this shows a pattern of discrimination of women leading back to one thing, the Media and its perception and benefit of using women as objects. References Boskind-White, M. (1991, February). Gender and eating disorders. CAWP. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.cawp.rutgers.edu/ Horowitz, J., Parker, K., Stepler, R. (2017, November 18). Wide Partisan Gaps in U.S. Over How Far the Country Has Come on Gender Equality. Retrieved from https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/ Lindsey, L. L. (2013). Gender roles (6th ed). New York, NY: Pearson Education Inc. Lrchter, S. R., Lichter, L. S., Rothman, S. (1986, September/October) Nagel, K. L., Jones, K. H. (1993) Eating disorders: Prevention through education. Journal of home economics, 53-56. Newsom, J. S., Scully, R. K., Dreyfous, G. W., Johnson, S. E., Congdon, J., Holland, E., Cvetko, S., Ro*Co Films Educational (Firm). (2011). Miss representation. Sausalito, Calif.: Ro*co Films Educational. Wood, J. T. (n.d.). Gendered Media: The influence of media on views of gender. Www.udel.edu